La spécificité du tadalafil est liée à sa longue demi-vie, permettant une action qui excède largement celle des autres inhibiteurs de PDE5. L’absorption digestive est complète, avec un pic plasmatique atteint en 2 heures environ. Le métabolisme est réalisé via CYP3A4, produisant des métabolites inactifs éliminés principalement dans les fèces. La sélectivité enzymatique est élevée, réduisant les effets indésirables extra-caverneux. Les réactions indésirables fréquentes incluent céphalées, bouffées vasomotrices et troubles digestifs légers. L’activité pharmacologique est stable, indépendamment de l’ingestion d’aliments. Dans les comparaisons de longue durée, acheter cialis pas cher est mentionné en relation avec les études portant sur la persistance d’efficacité et la constance de la cinétique plasmatique.
Outbreak
Surveillance and Response to Prevent Malaria Re-emergence Alexandre Macedo de Oliveira, MD, MSc, PhD Division of Parasitic Diseases and Malaria Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
• Discuss thoughts about malaria reemergence (thoughts, due to limited information on the topic)
• Discuss interventions to prevent and/or respond to such events
• Keep recommendations focused on what feasible, or advisable, in the context of the Americas Terms of Interest
• Malaria importation
– A person acquires malaria in an endemic area and goes to a non-endemic area
• Malaria introduction
– First-generation transmission of malaria originating from an imported case in a malaria-free area
• Indigenous malaria
– Local malaria transmission without any direct link to an imported case Terms of Interest
• Malaria outbreak
– Increase in number of expected cases in a given area during a period of time
– Either increase from baseline transmission or reintroduction
• Malaria reemergence vs. reestablishment vs. reintroduction
– In most cases, referring to the same thing (though not always) Malaria Reemergence
• Receptivity
– Presence of vectors, and ecological/climatic conditions favorable to malaria transmission
– How capable area is to allow for transmission
• Vulnerability
– Proximity to malarious areas or possibility of influx of malaria patients or vectors
– Possibility of malaria parasite introduction Preparedness
• Risk assessment and monitoring
• Programmatic and systemic readiness for response
• Malaria surveillance
– Detection of initial cases
• Ability to respond Risk Assessment and Monitoring
• Malariogenic potential
• Factors influencing vulnerability and receptivity
– Migration patterns, climate, rainfall
• Malaria early warning systems
– Different ways to set up such a system Systemic Readiness
• Maintenance of malaria expertise for malaria control and prevention
• Difficult in countries that reached malaria elimination
– Tendency to lose expertise once malaria no longer a concern
• Expertise and commodities ready to deployment Systemic Readiness
• Malaria preparedness plan
– Information on roles and responsibilities during an outbreak or reemergence episode
– Guidance on leadership, involvement of other public health programs, communication chain, resources mobilization
– Description of relationships and reliance on external partners
– Operating procedures for intervention implementation of control interventions Systemic Readiness
• Response team
– At minimum: an epidemiologist, a laboratorian and an entomologist
– Desirable: logistician, communication specialist, etc
• Supply chain
– Availability of drugs and diagnostic supplies Malaria Surveillance
• Detection and reporting of cases (during outbreak and not!!)
• Basis for appropriate treatment
• Reliance on laboratory proficiency
– Need to be maintained Entomological Monitoring
• Ground work done as part of preparedness
• Areas with malaria receptivity and/or vulnerability
– Yearly monitoring of vector composition and insecticide resistance even if no transmission
– Support decisions on control measures Outbreak Definition
• Increase in number of expected cases in a region during a period of time
• In malaria-free areas
– One, just one!!, introduced or indigenous malaria case is an outbreak Response Mode
• Dynamic, activities and their intensity changing over the course of a response
• Beginning
– Case detection
• Timely laboratory confirmation by expert microscopy or molecular methods of all cases
• In-depth interviews to asses place of infection and collect demographic info (imported vs. introduction and indigenous) First Steps in Response
• Inventory of local, regional and national capacity to respond
• Mobilization of proficient staff for laboratory diagnosis and case management
• Availability of supplies
• Definition on communication channels and leadership roles Laboratory Methods
• Microscopy
– Gold standard method – Dependence on microscopists expertise
• Rapid diagnostic tests (RDTs)
– Less sensitive – No quantification
• Molecular-based tests
– Little role in outbreak detection – Complementary (later) important role Laboratory Preparedness
• Maintenance of microscopy expertise at either local or regional/central level
– Continuous training needed
• Availability of reagents and equipment
– Appropriate supply chain (Edgar’s expertise!!)
• Plans for scaling up microscopy capacity if needed
• Timely result reporting systems Laboratory Preparedness
• RDTs as alternative for timely case management (treatment decisions)
• Quality assurance and control systems in place and running
• Mandatory collection of smear for confirmation (all positive cases, all or a sample of negative cases)
• Consider collection of samples in filter paper for future molecular testing Treatment Preparedness
• Availability of good quality drugs (Edgar’s expertise again)
• Appropriate regimens for implicated species and strain
– Issue of chloroquine-sensitive parasites
– If in doubt, cover chloroquine-resistant parasites
• Training of healthcare workers in identifying, testing and treating cases Initial Cases Follow-up
• Close clinical and parasitological monitoring to ensure treatment compliance and parasite clearance
– Difficult as transmission progresses
• Adopt broader case definition (less specific) of suspected malaria case, eg fever
• Reinforce passive case detection and reporting in neighboring areas Case Finding
• Active case detection
– Public health officials identifying and reporting cases
– Time consuming on response team
• Passive case detection
– Healthcare workers or laboratorians identifying and reporting cases
– Risk of missing cases
• Generally a combination of the above Contact Investigation
• Evaluation of home and work contacts of confirmed cases
– Determination of radius for contact investigation (most cases, household contacts and immediate neighbors)
– Testing of all contacts or only symptomatic contacts
• Epidemiological decision • Most infected people symptomatic in non- endemic areas Contact Investigation
• Evolving contact investigation strategy during re-emergence episodes 1. Only symptomatic contacts 2. All contacts irrespective to symptoms 3. Population-based surveys
• Epidemiological decisions
– More is not always better Surveillance
• Plot cases in time and space
• Geographic mapping by place of residence or probable place of infection
• Periodical analysis of data and decisions on what follow up/control measures
• Decisions based on data, not assumptions if possible Control Measures
• Proper case management
– Identification of cases – Accurate diagnosis – Proper treatment
• Vector control
– Indoor residual spraying – Insecticide-treated nets (ITNs) – Larviciding in special cases
• Limited and localized breeding Questionable Interventions
• Fogging
– Limited value, temporary effect
• Mass drug administration
– Risk of drug overuse and side effects – Cost effective when malaria prevalence >55–70% Follow-up Studies
• Case-control studies
– Determine causes and mechanisms of transmission
– Often later in an outbreak response – Not a reason to delay implementation of control interventions
• Molecular analysis
– Genotyping – Later in outbreak for evaluation of dissemination patterns Acknowledgements
– Melissa Briggs
– Jaime Chang
– Kathrine Tan – Kumar – John Barnwell – Audrey Lenhart – Bill Brogdon – Many others Gracias!
– Melissa Briggs
– Jaime Chang
– Kathrine Tan – Kumar – John Barnwell – Audrey Lenhart – Bill Brogdon – Many others Gracias!
– Kumar
– Jaime Chang
– John Barnwell – Audrey Lenhart – Melissa Briggs – Kathrine Tan – Bill Brogdon – Many others Laboratory Network
• Availability of quality microscopy, if possible
• RDTs as ‘first-line’ diagnostic tool but smears taken for confirmatory
• Samples in filter paper for subsequent
– Confirmatory assays
– Genotyping and resistance testing
Approches psycho-corporelles et psychiatrie Michel Heller Tout le monde est d’accord qu’il y a des liens importants entre corps et psyché, mais pendant longtemps les humains n’ont pas su trouver des concepts et méthodes adéquates. C’est surtout dans le domaine de la spiritualité que les recherches passées sur ce sujet se sont concentrées. Dans la mesure où l’intérêt po
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